Artificial Intelligence Anxiety in the Educational Context: Psychometric Adaptation of the Scale on a Sample of Russian Students

Today, there is a growing anxiety about artificial intelligence in the educational space, which greatly affects the willingness to make technological decisions and plan for one’s professional future. In empirical studies, AI anxiety is defined as a complex phenomenon including a range of negative emotional responses that shapes in people due to development and potential impact of artificial intelligence on various spheres of life. Given the impact of AI anxiety on learning, career choices, participation in the digital economy, and mental well-being, there is a need for its holistic conceptual description and reliable diagnosis. The aim of the study is to present a reliable and valid Russian-language tool for diagnosing AI anxiety in students. The adopted basis and modified for a student sample (N = 521) “Artificial Intelligence Anxiety Scale” (M.H. Alkhaibani et al.) showed an acceptable level of the external and internal validity as well as reliability on internal consistency. The factor analysis confirmed the five-factor structure of the questionnaire: concerns related to AI accuracy and reliability; concerns related to academic integrity (plagiarism); and concerns stemming from regulatory uncertainty (guidelines), fears of loss of learning and cognitive skills, as well as a decrease in motivation. External validity is confirmed by the correlations with neuroticism and conscientiousness as personality traits, image of the future, attitude towards artificial intelligence, and some socio-demographic characteristics. Adapted and modified psychodiagnostic tool for studying AI anxiety opens up opportunities for research on a Russian-speaking student sample.

1. Alkhalifah, J.M., Bedaiwi, A.M., Shaikh, N., Seddiq, W., Meo, S.A. (2024). Existential Anxiety about Artificial Intelligence (AI) - Is It the End of Humanity Era or a New Chapter in the Human Revolution: Questionnaire-Based Observational Study. Fronti4rs in Psychiatry. Vol. 9, no. 15, article no. 1368122, doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1368122.

2. Rashid, A.B., Kausik, M.A.K. (2024). AI Revolutionizing Industries Worldwide: A Comprehensive Overview of Its Diverse Applications. Hybrid Advanc4s, Vol. 7, аrticle no. 100277, doi: 10.1016/j.hybadv.2024.100277.

3. Fry, A.D.J. (2025). Being Human in a Post-Human World: Actor-Network Theory for AnxietyInduced Meaning-Making in the Existential Shadow of AI. Implicit R4ligion. Vol. 26, no. 2-3, pp. 231-257, doi: 10.1558/imre.30727.

4. Rizkina, A.T., Hidajat, H.G., Farida, I.A. (2025). Job-Related Anxiety in the Age of Artificial Intelligence: A Systematic Review of Workplace Dynamics. Formosa Journal of Multidisciplinary R4s4arch. Vol. 4, no. 8. pp. 3965-3976, doi: 10.55927/fjmr.v4i8.416.

5. Hatos, A. (2025). Anxiety in the Age of AI: Constructing a Tool to Assess Public Perceptions. BRAIN. Broad Research In Artificial Intelligence And Neuroscience. Vol. 16, pp. 415-426, doi: 10.70594/brain/16.S1/32.

6. Dong, M., Conway, J.R., Bonnefon, J.F., Shariff, A., Rahwan, I. (2026). Fears about Artificial Intelligence across 20 Countries and Six Domains of Application. Am4rican Psychologist. Vol. 81, no. 1, pp. 53-67, doi: 10.1037/amp0001454.

7. Suseno, Y., Chang, C., Hudik, M., Fang, E.S. (2023). Beliefs, Anxiety and Change Readiness for Artificial Intelligence Adoption among Human Resource Managers: The Moderating Role of High-Performance Work Systems. In: A. Malik, P. Budhwar (Eds.). Artificial Int4llig4nc4 and Int4rnational HRM. Pp. 144-171, doi: 10.4324/9781003377085-6.

8. Song, K., Guo, M., Ye, L., Liu, Y., Liu, S. (2024). Driverless Metros Are Coming, but What about the Drivers? A Study on AI-Related Anxiety and Safety Performance. Saf4ty Sci4nc4. Vol. 175, аrticle no. 106487, doi: 10.1016/j.ssci.2024.106487.

9. Goethals, F., Ziegelmayer, J.L. (2022). Anxiety Buffers and the Threat of Extreme Automation: A Terror Management Theory Perspective. Information T4chnology & P4opl4. Vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 96-118, doi: 10.1108/ITP-06-2019-0304.

10. Rony, M.K.K, Parvin, M.R., Wahiduzzaman, M., Debnath, M., Bala, S.D., Kayesh, I. (2024). “I Wonder if my Years of Training and Expertise Will be Devalued by Machines”: Concerns About the Replacement of Medical Professionals by Artificial Intelligence. SAGE Op4n Nurs. Vol. 7, no. 10, doi: 10.1177/23779608241245220.

11. Sharma, V., Deb S., Mahajan, Y., Ghosal, A., Kapse, M. (2025). Psychological Impacts of AI-Induced Job Displacement among Indian IT Professionals: A Delphi-Validated Thematic Analysis. Int J Qual Stud H4alth W4ll-b4ing. Vol. 20, no. 1, article no. 2556445, doi: 10.1080/17482631.2025.2556445.

12. Wang, Y.Y., Wang, Y.S. (2019). Development and Validation of an Artificial Intelligence Anxiety Scale: An Initial Application in Predicting Motivated Learning Behavior. Int4ractiv4 L4arning Environm4nts. Vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 619-634, doi: 10.1080/10494820.2019.1674887.

13. Zhan, E.S., Molina, M.D., Rheu, M., Peng, W. (2023). What is There to Fear? Understanding Multi-Dimensional Fear of Ai from a Technological Affordance Perspective. Int4rnational Journal of Human-Comput4r Int4raction. Doi: 10.1080/10447318.2023.2261731.

14. Wang, Y.M., Wei, C.L., Lin, H.H., Wang, S.C., Wang, Y.S. (2024). What Drives Students’ AI Learning Behavior: A Perspective of AI Anxiety. Int4ractiv4 L4arning Environm4nts. Vol. 32, no. 6, рр. 2584-2600, doi: 10.1080/10494820.2022.2153147.

15. Wen, F., Li, Y., Zhou, Y., An, X., Zou, Q. (2024). A Study on the Relationship between AI Anxiety and AI Behavioral Intention of Secondary School Students Learning English as a Foreign Language. Journal of Educational T4chnology D4v4lopm4nt and Exchang4. Vol. 17, no. 1, рр. 130-154, doi: 10.18785/jetde.1701.07.

16. Liu, X., Liu, Y. (2025). Developing and Validating a Scale of Artificial Intelligence Anxiety Among Chinese EFL Teachers. Europ4an Journal of Education. Vol. 60, iss. 1, doi: 10.1111/ejed.12902.

17. Cugurullo, F., Acheampong, R.A. (2024). Fear of AI: An Inquiry into the Adoption of Autonomous Cars in Spite of Fear, and a Theoretical Framework for the Study of Artificial Intelligence Technology Acceptance. AI & Soci4ty. Vol. 39, pp. 1569-1584, doi: 10.1007/s00146-022-01598-6.

18. Kitchens, M.B., Meier, B.P. (2025). The Fearful Mind of Artificial Intelligence: Fear and Perceived Existential Threat of Artificial Intelligence as a Function of Its Cognitive and Emotional Capabilities. Journal of Social Psychology. Vol. 9, pp. 1-14, doi: 10.1080/00224545.2025.2503006.

19. Lemay, D., Basnet, R.B., Doleck, T. (2020). Fearing the Robot Apocalypse: Correlates of AI Anxiety. Int4rnational Journal of L4arning Analytics and Artificial Int4llig4nc4 for Education. Vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 24-33, doi: 10.3991/ijai.v2i2.16759.

20. Kaya, F., Aydin, F., Schepman, A., Rodway, P., Yetişensoy, O., Demir Kaya, M. (2024). The Roles of Personality Traits, AI Anxiety, and Demographic Factors in Attitudes toward Artificial Intelligence. Int4rnational Journal of Human-Comput4r Int4raction. Vol. 40, pp. 497-514, doi: 10.1080/10447318.2022.2151730.

21. Schiavo, G., Businaro, S., Zancanaro, M. (2024). Comprehension, Apprehension, and Acceptance: Understanding the Influence of Literacy and Anxiety on Acceptance of Artificial Intelligence. T4chnology and Soci4ty. Vol. 77, doi: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2024.102537.

22. Zhong, G. (2023). The Influence Mechanism of Ai Technology Learning Anxiety in the HumanComputer Collaboration Context: The Moderating Effect of Uncertainty Avoidance and the Mediating Effect of Self-Efficacy. Th4 EUrASEANs: Journal on Global Socio-Economic Dynamics. No. 6 (43), doi: 10.35678/2539-5645.6(43).2023.170-180.

23. Chang, P.C., Zhang, W., Cai, Q., Guo, H. (2024). Does AI-Driven Technostress Promote or Hinder Employees’ Artificial Intelligence Adoption Intention? A Moderated Mediation Model of Affective Reactions and Technical Self-Efficacy. Psychology R4s4arch and B4havior Manag4m4nt. Vol. 7, no. 17, doi: 10.2147/PRBM.S441444.

24. Tsao, J. (2025). Trajectories of AI Policy in Higher Education: Interpretations, Discourses, and Enactments of Students and Teachers. Comput4rs and Education: Artificial Int4llig4nc4. Doi: 10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100496.

25. Onan, G., Dalmış, A.B. (2025). Yapay Zekâ Kaygısının Gölgesinde: Psikolojik Güçlendirmenin Işe Adanmışlık Ve Işte Kendini Yetiştirme Üzerindeki Etkisi. Busin4ss &Amp; Manag4m4nt Studi4s: An Int4rnational Journal. Vol. 13, no. 1, рр. 300-321, doi: 10.15295/bmij.v13i1.2508.

26. Güdük, O., Vural, A., Dişiaçık, G. (2025). Investigating The Effect of Perceived Empowerment on Artificial Intelligence Anxiety Levels in Healthcare Workers. Çalışma V4 Toplum. Vol. 1, iss. 84, рр. 285-310, doi: 10.54752/ct.1624015.

27. Beder, Z. A., Donmez-Turan, A. (2025). The Critical Role of Uncertainty Intolerance on the Relationship Between Spiritual Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence Anxiety. Int4rnational Journal of Busin4ss Ecosyst4m &Amp; Strat4gy (/687-//9S). Vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 82-105. doi: 10.36096/ijbes.v7i1.722.

28. Russo. C., Romano, L., Clemente, D., Iacovone L., Gladwin, T.E., Panno, A. (2025). Gender Differences in Artificial Intelligence: The Role of Artificial Intelligence Anxiety. Fronti4rs in Psychology. Vol. 6, no. 16, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1559457.

29. Terzi, R. (2020). An Adaptation of Artificial Intelligence Anxiety Scale into Turkish: Reliability and Validity Study. Int4rnational Onlin4 Journal of Education and T4aching (IOJET). Vol. 7, no. 4, рр. 1501-1515, doi: 10.1177/10519815241290648.

30. Falebita, O. (2024). Evaluating Artificial Intelligence Anxiety Among Pre-Service Teachers in University Teacher Education Programs. Journal of Math4matics Instruction, Social R4s4arch and Opinion. Vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 1-16, doi: 10.58421/misro.v4i1.309.

31. Chen, S., Zhao, Y. (2024). Explore the AI Anxiety Attitude of E-Commerce Employees. Int4rnational Journal of Human–Comput4r Int4raction. Vol. 41, no. 13, pp. 8438-8446, doi: 10.1080/10447318.2024.2409470.

32. Gerlich, M. (2024). Public Anxieties About AI: Implications for Corporate Strategy and Societal Impact. Administrative Science. Vol. 14, no. 288, doi: 10.3390/admsci14110288.

33. Uçar, M., Çapuk, H., Yiğit, M.F. (2025). The Relationship Between Artificial Intelligence Anxiety and Unemployment Anxiety among University Students. Work. Vol. 80, no. 2, pp. 701-710, doi: 10.1177/10519815241290648.

34. Arvai, N., Katonai, G., Mesko, B. (2025). Health Care Professionals’ Concerns About Medical AI and Psychological Barriers and Strategies for Successful Implementation: Scoping Review. Journal of M4dical Int4rn4t R4s4arch. Vol. 23, no. 27, article no. e66986, doi: 10.2196/66986.

35. Alshaibani, M.H., Al-Rahmi, W.M., Tawafak, R.M. (2025). Psychometric Validation of the Artificial Intelligence Anxiety Scale: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Academic Research. Cont4mporary Educational T4chnology. Vol. 17, no. 4, doi: 10.30935/cedtech/17309.

36. Sergeeva, A.S., Kirillov, B.A., Dzhumagulova, A.F. (2016). Translation and Adaptation of Short Five Factor Personality Questionnaire (Tipi-Ru): Convergent Validity, Internal Consistency and Test-Retest Reliability Evaluation. Eksp4rim4ntal’naya psikhologiya = Exp4rim4ntal psychology. Vol. 9, no. 3. pp. 138-154, doi: 10.17759/exppsy.2016090311 (In Russ., abstract in Eng.).

37. Zaleski, Z., Sobol-Kwapinska, M., Przepiorka, A., Meisner, M. (2019). Development and Validation of the Dark Future Scale. Tim4 & Soci4ty, Vol. 28, no. 1, рр. 107-123, doi: 10.1177/0961463X16678257.

38. Nestik, T.A., Zhuravlev, A.L. (2018). Psychology of Global Risks [Psychology of Global Risks]. Moscow: Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 402 p. ISBN: 978-5-9270-0385-3. (In Russ.).

39. Nestik T.A. (2025). Koll4ktivnyi obraz budushch4go: sotsial’no-psikhologich4skii analiz [The Collective Image of the Future: A Socio-Psychological Analysis]. Moscow: Institut psikhologii RAN, 657 p., doi: 10.38098/soc_25_0493 (In Russ.).

40. Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E. (2010). Multivariat4 Data Analysis. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, United States, 834 р. ISBN: 978-1-4737-5654-0.

41. Acock, A.C. (2013). Discov4ring Structural Equation Mod4ling Using Stata. Stata Press, College Station, United States, 306 р. ISBN: 978-1-59718-133-4.

42. Byrne, B.M. (2016). Structural Equation Mod4ling with Amos. Routledge, New York, United States, 396 р. ISBN 978-0-8058-6372-7.

43. Tao, M., Li, X., Alam, F., Yan, Y., Chau, T. (2025). Unveiling the Impact of AI Technological Anxiety on the Marketers’ Intention to Adopt Generative AI. Journal of Global Information Manag4m4nt. Vol. 33, no. 1. pp. 1-22. doi: 10.4018/JGIM.372177.

44. Gu, Y, Gu, S, Lei, Y, Li, H. (2020). From Uncertainty to Anxiety: How Uncertainty Fuels Anxiety in a Process Mediated by Intolerance of Uncertainty. N4ural Plasticity. Vol. 22, doi: 10.1155/2020/8866386.

45. Teo, S.A. (2025). Artificial Intelligence, Human Vulnerability and Multi-Level Resilience. Comput4r Law & S4curity R4vi4w. Vol. 57, article no. 106134, doi: 10.1016/j.clsr.2025.106134.

46. Terenzio, F. (2025). Systemic Vulnerability: From AI Systems to Environmental Systems. Topoi. doi: 10.1007/s11245-025-10285-2.

47. Klein, C.R., Klein, R. (2025). The Extended Hollowed Mind: Why Foundational Knowledge Is Indispensable in the Age of AI. Fronti4rs in Artificial Int4llig4nc4. Vol. 11, no. 8, doi: 10.3389/frai.2025.1719019.

48. Varol, B. (2025). Artificial Intelligence Anxiety in Nursing Students: The Impact of Self-efficacy. Comput4rs, Informatics, Nursing. Vol. 1, no. 43 (6), article no. e01250, doi: 10.1097/CIN.0000000000001250.

49. Morales-García, W.C., Sairitupa-Sanchez, L.Z., Flores-Paredes, A., Pascual-Mariño, J., Morales-García, M. (2026). Influ4nc4 of S4lf-Efficacy in th4 Us4 of Artificial Int4llig4nc4 (AI) and Anxi4ty Toward AI Us4 on AI D4p4nd4nc4 Among P4ruvian Univ4rsity Stud4nts. Data and Metadata [Internet]. 2025 Jan. 12 [cited 2026 Apr. 3]; 4:210, doi: 10.56294/dm2025210.

50. Albino, M.G., Albino, F.S., Asio, J.M.R., Gadia, E.D. (2025). Influence of AI Anxiety on AI SelfEfficacy among College Students. Int4rnational Journal of T4chnology in Education (IJTE). Vol. 8, no. 2, рр. 557-573, doi: 10.46328/ijte.1109.

51. Fan, Y., Tang, L., Le, H., Shen, K., Tan, S., Zhao, Y. et al. (2024). Beware of Metacognitive Laziness: Effects of Generative Artificial Intelligence on Learning Motivation, Processes, and Performance. British Journal of Educational T4chnology. Vol. 56, pp. 489-530, doi: 10.1111/bjet.13544.

52. Kinskofer, F., Tulis, M. (2025) Motivational and Appraisal Factors Shaping Generative AI Use and Intention in Austrian Higher Education Students and Teachers. Fronti4rs in Education. Vol. 10, doi: 10.3389/feduc.2025.1677827.

53. Zhou, J., Lu, Y., Chen, Q. (2025) GAI Identity Threat: When and Why Do Individuals Feel Threatened? Information & Manag4m4nt. Vol. 62, iss. 2, doi: 10.1016/j.im.2024.104093.

54. Zhou, Q., Yang, L., Tang, Y., Yang, J., Zhou, W., Guan, W., Yan, L., Liu Y. (2025). The Mediation of Trust on Artificial Intelligence Anxiety and Continuous Adoption of Artificial Intelligence Technology among Primacy Nurses: A Cross-Sectional Study. BMC Nursing. Vol. 1, iss. 24 (1), article no. 724, doi: 10.1186/s12912-025-03406-0.

55. Andreescu, F. (2024). Existence Hacked: Meaning, Freedom, Death, and Intimacy in the Age of AI. Ai & Soci4ty. Vol. 40 (4), pp. 2881-2893, doi: 10.1007/s00146-024-02052-5.

56. Jussupow, E., Spohrer., K, Heinzl., A. (2022). Identity Threats as a Reason for Resistance to Artificial Intelligence: Survey Study With Medical Students and Professionals. JMIR Formativ4 R4s4arch. Vol. 23, no. 6 (3), doi: 10.2196/28750.

57. Kuchmaner, C.A. (2026). Mitigating Identity Threats Posed by Artificial Intelligence: The Role of Perceived AI Relatedness. Journal of Consum4r B4havior. Vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 176-190, doi: 10.1002/cb.70066.