“That’ll Teach Them”: Investigating the Soft Power Conversion Model through the Case of Russian Higher Education
https://doi.org/10.31992/0869-3617-2022-31-1-120-140
Abstract
While the international environment remains characterized by the desire of states to strengthen their position, the literature has revealed a growing preference for soft power instruments over military intervention. Higher education has been repurposed as a tool to achieve foreign policy goals, with many states embracing the international norm on world-class universities in an attempt to improve their international competitiveness and their image abroad. This paper considers the soft power conversion model of higher education and attempts to determine its effectiveness through a case study devoted to Russian Higher Education. A survey of foreign students starting their studies and of another finishing their studies in three leading Russian universities reveals that receiving a higher education in Russia may contribute to aligning students’ positions with the Russian perspective on international issues diffused in these universities as was confirmed by surveying a control group of Russian students. These preliminary findings suggest that the benefits of internationalizing national higher education systems are not just reserved to the norm initiators (US, UK) but extend to second wave norm adopters (Russia, China).
About the Authors
A. Crowley-Vigneau
MGIMO University
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Anne Crowley-Vigneau – PhD in International Relations and Management, Cand. Sci. (Political), Assoc. Prof.
76, Prospect Vernadskogo, 119454, Moscow
A. A. Baykov
MGIMO University
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Andrey A. Baykov – Cand. Sci. (Political), Assoc. Prof.
76, Prospect Vernadskogo, 119454, Moscow
E. Kalyuzhnova
Henley Business School
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
E. Kalyuzhnova – PhD, Prof.
Reading, RG6 6UD
References
1. Nye Jr, J.S. (2013). Hard, Soft, and Smart Power. In: Cooper A.F., Heine J., Thakur R. (Eds). The Oxford Handbook of Modern Diplomacy. Oxford University Press, 990 p., doi: 10.1093/ oxfordhb/9780199588862.013.0031
2. Lomer, S. (2017). Soft Power as a Policy Rationale for International Education in the UK: A Critical Analysis. Higher Education. Vol. 74, no. 4, pp. 581-598, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-016-0060-6
3. Ohnesorge, H.W. (2020). A Methodological Roadmap for the Study of Soft Power. In: Soft Power. Springer, Cham, pp. 227-294, doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-29922-4_4
4. Nye, J. (2009). Smart Power, New Perspectives Quarterly. Vol. 26, issue 2, pp. 7-9, doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5842.2009.01057.x
5. Li, J. (2018). Conceptualizing Soft Power of Higher Education: Globalization and Universities in China and the World. Springer. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328693303_Conceptualizing_Soft_Power_of_Higher_Education (accessed 21.12.2021).
6. Bogaturov, A. (2006). Leadership and Decentralization in the International System. Mezhdunarodnye protsessy = International Trends. Vol. 4, no. 3 (12). Available at: https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=18874050 (accessed 21.12.2021). (In Russ., abstract in Eng.).
7. Amirbek, A., Ydyrys, K. (2014). Education and Soft Power: Analysis as an Instrument of Foreign Policy Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences Vol. 143, pp. 514-516, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.428
8. Nye, J.S., Jr. (2004). The Decline of America’s Soft Power. Foreign Affairs. Vol. 83, no. 3, pp. 16-21. Available at: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2004-05-01/decline-americassoft-power (accessed 21.12.2021).
9. Blanchard, J.-M. F., Lu, F. (2012). Thinking Hard about Soft Power: A Review and Critique of the Literature on China and Soft Power. Asian Perspective. Vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 565-589, doi: 10.1353/APR.2012.0021
10. Nye, J.S., Jr. (2005). Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. New York: Public Affairs. Available at: http://www.tinyurl.com/mug36ku (accessed 21.12.2021).
11. Kurlantzick, J. (2006). China’s Charm: Implications of Chinese Soft Power. Available at: https://carnegieendowment.org/files/PB_47_FINAL.pdf (accessed 21.12.2021).
12. Yee-Kuang, H. (2010). Mirror, Mirror on the Wall, Who Is the Softest of them All? Evaluating Japanese and Chinese Strategies in the ‘Soft’ Power Competition Era. International Relations of the Asia-Pacic. Vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 275-304, doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/irap/lcp023
13. Nagao, H. (2016). China’s Soft Power Investment in African Nations. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Kansas. Available at: https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/handle/1808/21880 (accessed 21.12.2021).
14. Kearn, D.W. (2011). The Hard Truths about Soft Power. Journal of Political Power. Vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 65-85, doi: 10.1080/2158379X.2011.556869
15. Lankina, T., Niemczyk, K. (2015). Russia’s Foreign Policy and Soft Power. In: Cadier D., Light M. (Eds). Russia’s Foreign Policy. Palgrave Macmillan, London, pp. 97-113, doi: 10.1057/9781137468888_7
16. Lukes, S. (2005). Power: A Radical View. Basingstoke. Palgrave Macmillan, doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298050330031003
17. Crowley-Vigneau, A., Le Saux, F. (2021). Language and Statecraft: An Old Tool for New Goals? International Trends. Vol. 19, no. 64, pp. 120-138, doi: 10.17994/IT.2021.19.1.64.9
18. Montgomery, C. (2010). Understanding the International Student Experience. Macmillan International Higher Education. ISBN: 9781403986191
19. Atkinson, C. (2010). Does Soft Power Matter? A Comparative Analysis of Student Exchange Programs 1980–2006. Foreign Policy Analysis. Vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1-22, doi: 10.1111/j.1743-8594.2009.00099.x
20. Brown, L., Jones, I. (2013). Encounters with Racism and the International Student Experience. Studies in Higher Education. Vol. 38, no. 7, pp. 1004-1019, doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2011.614940
21. Lee, J.J., Rice, C. (2007). Welcome to America? International Student Perceptions of Discrimination. Higher Education. Vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 381-409, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-005-4508-3
22. Brannagan, P.M., Giulianotti, R. (2018). The Soft Power-Soft Disempowerment Nexus: The Case of Qatar. International Affairs. Vol. 94, no. 5, pp. 1139-1157, doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiy125
23. Wilson, I. (2014). International Education Programs and Political Influence: Manufacturing Sympathy? Springer. ISBN: 978-1-137-34967-5
24. Crowley-Vigneau, A., Istomin, I.A., Baykov, A.A., Kalyuzhnova, Y. (2021). Transnational Policy Networks and Change through Internationalization (The Record of Project 5-100). Polis: Journal of Political Studies. Vol. 5, pp. 8-24, doi: https://doi.org/10.17976/jpps/2021.05.02
25. Chow, C., Leung, C. (2016). Reshaping Universities for Survival in the 21st Century. Bentham Science Publishers, doi: 10.2174/97816810821101160101
26. Sá, F. (2019). The Effect of University Fees on Applications, Attendance and Course Choice: Evidence from a Natural Experiment in the UK. Economica. Vol. 86, pp. 607-634, doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/ecca.12278
27. Beneito, P., Boscá, J., Ferri, J. (2018). Tuition Fees and Student Effort at University. Economics of Education Review. Vol. 64, pp. 114-128, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.03.012
28. Becker, B.A., Eube, C. (2018). Open Innovation Concept: Integrating Universities and Business in Digital Age. Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity. Vol. 4, no. 12, doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40852-018-0091-6
29. Marginson, S., van der Wende, M. (2007). To Rank or to Be Ranked: The Impact of Global Rankings in Higher Education. Journal of Studies in International Education. Vol. 11, no. 3-4, pp. 306-329, doi:10.1177/1028315307303544
30. Altbach, P.G. (2004). Globalisation and the University: Myths and Realities in an Unequal World. Tertiary Education & Management. Vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 3-25, doi: 10.1023/B:TEAM.0000012239.55136.4b
31. Deem, R., Mok, K.H., Lucas, L. (2008). Transforming Higher Education in Whose Image? Exploring the Concept of the ‘World-Class’ University in Europe and Asia. Higher Education Policy. Vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 8-97, doi: 10.1057/palgrave.hep.8300179
32. Salmi, J. (2009). The Challenge of Establishing World-Class Universities. Directions in Development; Human Development. World Bank. Available at: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/2600 (accessed 21.12.2021).
33. Escher, G., Aebischer, P. (2018). Pour des universités de rang mondial: Défis et chances des universités européennes au XXIe siècle. Futuribles. Vol. 424, no. 3, pp. 37-45, doi: https://doi.org/10.3917/futur.424.0037
34. Huang, F. (2015). Building the World-Class Research Universities: A Case Study of China. Higher Education. Vol. 70, pp. 203-215, doi: 10.1525/curh.2006.105.693.341
35. Gao, J., Li, C. (2020). Version 2.0 of Building World-Class Universities in China: Initial Outcomes and Problems of the Double World-Class Project. Higher Education Policy. Vol. 1, no. 17, doi: 10.1057/s41307-020-00211-z
36. Crowley-Vigneau, A., Baykov, A.A., Kalyuzhnova, Y. (2020). Implementation of International Norms in Russia: The Case of Higher Education. Vysshee obrazovanie v Rossii = Higher Education in Russia. Vol. 29, no. 8-9, pp. 39-54, doi: https://doi.org/10.31992/0869-3617-2020-29-8-9-39-54 (In Russ., abstract in Eng.).
37. Arzhanova, I.V., Dydzinskaya, D.V., Musina, E.A., Seleznev, P.S. (2019). Foreign Students’ Study in the “Flagship Universities” of the Russian Federation within the Context of “Soft Power” Implementation. Vysshee obrazovanie v Rossii = Higher Education in Russia. Vol. 28, no. 8-9, pp. 9-20, doi: https://doi.org/10.31992/0869-3617-2019-28-8-9-9-20 (In Russ., abstract in Eng.).
38. Torkunov, A. (2013). Education as a Soft Power Instrument of Russia’s Foreign Policy. Russian International Affairs Council. March 6. Available at: https://russiancouncil.ru/en/analyticsand-comments/analytics/education-as-a-soft-power-instrument-of-russia-s-foreign-pol/ (accessed 21.12.2021).
39. Kosachev, K. (2012). The Specifics of Russian Soft Power. Russia in Global Affairs. No. 3. July/ Sept. Available at: https://eng.globalaffairs.ru/articles/the-specifics-of-russian-soft-power/(accessed 21.12.2021).
40. Sergunin, A., Karabeshkin, L. (2015). Understanding Russia’s Soft Power Strategy. Politics. Vol. 35, no. 3-4, pp. 347-363, doi: 10.1111/1467-9256.12109
41. Baykov, A. (2014). The EU Soft Power in the Global Equilibrium. MGIMO Review of International Relations. Vol. 2, no. 35, pp. 36-46, doi: https://doi.org/10.24833/2071-8160-2014-2-35-36-46 (In Russ., abstract in Eng.).
42. Tsygankov, A. (2013). Moscow’s Soft Power Strategy. Current History. Vol. 112, no. 756, pp. 259-264, doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/curh.2013.112.756.259
43. Troitski, M. (2011). Russian Soft Power in the European Union. Paper Presented at the “Russian Soft Power: Perspectives and Prospects” Conference, Centre for Polish-Russian Dialogue and Understanding, Warsaw, 20 December. Available at: http://mikhailtroitski.livejournal.com/2099.html (accessed 21.12.2021).
44. Monaghan, A. (2013) The New Russian Foreign Policy Concept: Evolving Continuity, London : Chatham House. Corpus ID: 159444638
45. Pieper, M. (2020). Russkiy mir: The Geopolitics of Russian Compatriots abroad. Geopolitics. Vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 756-779, doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2018.1465047
46. Feklyunina, V. (2016). Soft Power and Identity: Russia, Ukraine and the ‘Russian World (s)’. European Journal of International Relations. Vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 773-796, doi: 10.1177/1354066115601200
47. Laruelle, M. (2015). Russia as a “Divided Nation,” from Compatriots to Crimea: A Contribution to the Discussion on Nationalism and Foreign Policy. Problems of Post-Communism. Vol. 62, no. 2, pp. 88-97, doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10758216.2015.1010902
48. Ziegler, C.E. (2006). The Russian Diaspora in Central Asia: Russian Compatriots and Moscow’s Foreign Policy. Demokratizatsiya [Democratization]. Vol. 14, no. 1. Available at: https://demokratizatsiya.pub/archives/14_1_B4325H5G8364JW88.pdf (accessed 21.12.2021).
49. Zevelev, I. (2008). Russia’s Policy Toward Compatriots in the Former Soviet Union. Russia in Global Affairs. Vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 49-62. Available at: https://eng.globalaffairs.ru/articles/russias-policy-toward-compatriots-in-the-former-soviet-union/ (accessed 21.12.2021).
50. Ponyavina, M.B., Rastorguev, S.V., Seleznev, P.S., Suchilina, A.A., Shatilov, A.B. (2021). Monitoring the Social Attitudes of Foreign Students. Vysshee obrazovanie v Rossii = Higher Education in Russia. Vol. 30, no. 8-9, pp. 80-92, doi: 10.31992/0869-3617-2021-30-8-9-80-92
51. Hill, F. (2006). Moscow Discovers Soft Power. Current History. Vol. 105, no. 693, pp. 341-347.
52. Pestereva, N., Kholina, V., Qi, W. (2019). The Russian Market for Exported Educational Services: The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) Network University. European Journal of Contemporary Education. Vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 574-586, doi: 10.13187/ejced.2019.3.574
53. Khomyakov, M. (2017). Global: BRICS University League Starts to Form, But Needs True Collaboration. In: Understanding Higher Education Internationalization. Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, pp. 291-293, doi: https://doi.org/10.15826/csp.2018.2.4.050
54. Lee, G. (2009). A Theory of Soft Power and Korea’s Soft Power Strategy. The Korean Journal of Defense Analysis. Vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 205-218, doi:10.1080/10163270902913962
55. Nichols, A.L., Maner, J.K. (2008). The Good-Subject Effect: Investigating Participant Demand Characteristics. The Journal of General Psychology. Vol. 135, no. 2, pp. 151-166, doi: https://doi.org/10.3200/GENP.135.2.151-166
56. Orne, M.T. (1962). On the Social Psychology of the Psychological Experiment: With Particular Reference to Demand Characteristics and Their Implications. American Psychologist. Vol. 17, no. 11, pp. 776, doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043424
57. Cook, T.D., Bean, J.R., Calder, B.J., Frey, R., Krovetz, M.L., Reisman, S.R. (1970). Demand Characteristics and Three Conceptions of the Frequently Deceived Subject. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 185, doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0028849
58. Jones, E. (1993). The Courtesy Bias in South-East Asian Surveys. Social Research in Developing Countries. Vol. 253, no. 9. Available at: http://ndl.ethernet.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/17115/1/19.pdf#page=270 (accessed 21.12.2021).
Review
Views:
1075
Email this article 